SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
INTRODUCTION
Sociological theories are frameworks that provide tools
for understanding the social world and the interactions within it. These
theories help sociologists and researchers to interpret and explain social
phenomena, patterns of behavior, and societal structures. They offer different
perspectives on how societies operate and evolve, and they guide the study of
social processes, institutions, and relationships.
The development of sociological theories can be traced
back to the 19th century when scholars like Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max
Weber laid the foundations for understanding society through systematic
analysis. Since then, various theorists and schools of thought have contributed
diverse perspectives and approaches to the field.
Key functions of sociological theories include:
- Explanation:
Theories seek to explain why certain social phenomena occur and how they
operate within society. They offer insights into the underlying causes and
mechanisms that shape human behavior and societal structures.
- Prediction:
By identifying patterns and regularities in social behavior, theories
enable sociologists to make predictions about future social trends or
outcomes.
- Understanding:
Theories help us make sense of complex social realities by providing
frameworks through which we can interpret social interactions,
institutions, and cultural practices.
BACKGROUND
As the study of social relationships and systems,
sociology has many theories that can help us to better understand and interact
with the world around us. That includes competing theories that are attempting
to explain the same phenomena, as well as theories that cover an incredibly
diverse range of different social systems and issues.
Fully appreciating some of the most popular theories in
sociology often requires you to understand many other theories as a point of
reference. But exploring a few examples of sociological theory can better
provide a sense of the range of ideas explored by sociology, as well as prepare
you for exploring some of its more complicated ideas in-depth.
What Are Sociology theories?
A theory is a set of principles that helps us to explain
something about the world. For example, the theory of evolution helps us
explain an enormous variety of evidence about the world, from the fossil record
to questions about DNA. Even within that theory, you’ll find many competing
ideas. For example, gradualism holds that evolutionary changes are slow and
gradual, while punctuated equilibrium argues big changes occur in short spurts
that are far apart.
In the same way, as other scientific theories explain the
world, sociological theories provide us with a framework for explaining the
social world around us. They might ask questions about the nature of social
order or about the kinds of processes that influence social change. There are
also many different types of sociological theory, which look at a wide range of
social problems and issues. That’s why starting with some of the primary
perspectives in sociological theory is an excellent starting point for further
exploration.
Major Sociological Theories
The three major sociological theories that new
students learn about are the interactionist perspective, the conflict
perspective, and the functionalist perspective. And each has its own distinct
way of explaining various aspects of society and the human behavior within it.
Taking a moment to compare and contrast sociological theories can provide
further context.
Interactionist Perspective
Many sociological theories are what’s called
macro-sociology — looking at the big picture. For instance, macro-sociology
might consider how a social problem like poverty would be influenced by various
social institutions. By contrast, micro-sociology is focused on the dynamics
involved between smaller groups of individuals.
The interactionist perspective is a good example of
micro-sociology. This theory is sometimes called the symbolic
interactionist perspective because it argues that our behavior is
deeply influenced by definitions and symbolic meanings. And it is our symbolic
interactions with other members of the community which creates those
definitions and meanings. Our sense of self, being influenced by social
interaction, is also influenced by the way others choose to label us. Because
the labels others give us provide us with a new view of ourselves.
As such, the interactionist perspective emphasizes the
fact that humans react to their perceived definition of their circumstances, as
opposed to what you might call an objective evaluation. If we were absolutely
positive the world was ending at a particular time and date, whether or not it
was a true belief, it would influence our behavior in a significant way. As a
result, the things we consider real are capable of being real in consequence,
even if our beliefs are incorrect.
Functionalist Perspective
By contrast, the functionalist perspective is a more
traditional example of macro-sociology. It has a heavy emphasis on the
interconnected relationships between various systems within society. In other
words, it tends to be more concerned with how part and whole influence each
other. And those parts have to cooperate and work together in order to keep
society in a state of balance.
Family values, education, knowledge, and culture play an
important role in communicating values to young people. Within this
perspective, all the various aspects of a society are considered functional if
they help social stability, or dysfunctional if they do not. But what is social
stability? Even among functionalists, you’ll find an array of answers.
And some circumstances are more challenging to identify
than others; some aspects of society can even contribute and detract from
social instability at the same time. For instance, crime is associated with
social instability. But it can also be functional by promoting shared moral
bonds, social cohesion, and occasionally helping to readjust social norms.
Learn more about sociological theories about crime.
Conflict Perspective
While functionalism shows us a cooperative picture of
society, the conflict perspective looks at society as being composed of groups
with their own distinct interests. This theory originates from Karl Marx, who
viewed human society as undergoing a series of different stages of economic
development.
At the stage of industrialization, separate classes of
people emerge, those who earn wages (proletariat) and those who own the means
of production (bourgeoisie.) The bourgeoisie then use their disproportionate
influence to rearrange society to their advantage, and maintain power
differences by using their control over social institutions to turn them to
their own advantage. Some conflict perspective theorists will claim progress is
a zero sum game, and progress for one group can only come at the expense of another.
Others disagree.
Importantly, conflict theory is not limited to ideas
of class. You can define groups in various different ways, along
religious, racial, gender, or political lines. In each case, the members of
those groups will tend to pursue what is in the interests of their group. And
in each case, conflict theory asks us to look at which groups have power
presently, and who is benefiting from currently-existing social arrangements.
For example, men and women suffer from different types of cancer, at different
rates. But how does research funding get allocated?
Additional Sociological Theories
Outside of the major perspectives, there are
many major sociological theories that explore a variety of facets
about our social world:
Socialization
Socialization is the means by which human infants begin to
attain the necessary skills needed to perform and interact as functioning
members of their society.
Social Exchange Theory
Social exchange theory is a concept established on the
concept that a relationship between two people is created through a process of
cost-benefit analysis.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory suggests that social behavior is
learned by observing and imitating the behavior of others.
Labeling Theory
Labeling theory considers that self-identity and the
behavior of individuals may be determined or motivated by the terms used to
describe or classify them.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion,
sociological theories provide essential frameworks for understanding the
complexities of human societies and social interactions. They offer various
perspectives and explanations for how societies function, evolve, and maintain
order or experience conflict. By examining social phenomena through different
theoretical lenses, sociologists can uncover underlying patterns, mechanisms,
and dynamics that shape our social world.
ARRANGED BY AHMED YUSUF
REFFERENCE/SOURCES CREADITED BY
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